Inca and Aztec Ceramics: The Impacts of Spanish Colonialism

          Ceramics are a portal back to the times of the ancient Inca and Aztec Empires, revealing the inner workings of the culture through the creation process and usage. There are significant differences between the pottery made and used before and after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. This pertains to the molding, glazing, and designing efforts that go into the work before it can be operated. The shift from strictly indigenous influence to the additional blend of European qualities is documented by the artifacts recovered by archaeologists and compared to the Spaniard accounts of the 16^th century. There are also many similarities that occur in tandem concerning the ceramic habits of the Incas and Aztecs, before and after the conquests, especially considering the lack of written reports from the true perspectives of the natives and the language barrier between the two civilizations. Although the natives of the Americas suffered terrible tragedies at the hands of the Spaniards, the long withstanding pottery of the time attests to the preservation of indigenous culture even when the colonizers were determined to distinguish it.

          Pre-Inca societies developed into larger civilizations with a combination of culture and tradition due to conquest all along the coast, eventually creating the Inca Empire that dominated modern-day Peru and the surrounding countries (Rowe, 1946: 199). Ceramic construction and design evolved from early Inca techniques, specifically from the Killke, who were located in Cuzco and are responsible for much of the architecture and pottery that survived into the late-Inca period and inspired the material culture that the Inca Empire is known for (Ixer et al, 124). Rowe notes the similarities between Killke pottery and the later Cuzco pottery by the black, red, and occasionally white colors used to decorate the clay, the geometric designs, and the shapes of the pottery that the clay was molded and kilned into. Further analysis reveals that the ceramics consisted of a mixture of fabric from clay and rock prominently andesite (Bauer & Stanish, 1), that is fired into a relatively firm material. The most common arrangements of pigments were lines of varying thickness and triangular shapes, drawn mostly with black and red pigment, although they dried in a diverse assortment of colors depending on consistencies, application, and time spend getting fired.

          Connections between the human body and Inca pottery have been identified by archaeologist Tamara Bray, most notably pertaining to the shape of the pot and the designs carved into it. She emphasizes the important for one to use their imagination when interpreting a metaphor to understand the link between humanity and the objects that ensue. For example, Bray acknowledges the “use of gold to symbolize the sun or a flower to symbolize beauty” (120-121). In this same way, Inca potters placed visual illustrations of the geography and culture around them. Figure 7-1 of Exploring Inca State Religion through Material Culture depicts a jar that is round on the bottom with a thin, long neck and a face painted on that is a pagan mixture of humanistic and animalistic characteristics. The handle behind the “head” is a representation of the long hair that was custom in Inca society for both men and women (Rowe, 235). The print on the body of the vessel replicates the geometric design found on the clothing of significant figures. There are more obvious portrayals of the human body, more specifically the daily activities of the human body. Figure 7-2 shows a jar carrying another smaller jar on its back, a sculpture that simulates the act of carrying a package or small child on one’s back (Bray, 125).

          Owning and creating intricate Inca pottery was an indication of one’s social class in the Empire. As discussed early, the pattern of triangles and squares on the jar in Figure 7-1 symbolizes the rank and superiority of a wealthy noble, a phenomenon noticed more clearly when comparing the chevron pattern on Figure 7-5b to the concentric diamond shapes on the midline of Figure 7-4c. The specific design on the tunic occurred only frequently enough for it to be deduced that it belonged to an Inca royal, based on the simultaneous appearance of the pattern on textiles and pottery (Bray, 126). The repetition of diamonds, or rhombi, that decorate Figure 7-5a carry significant weight in ancient Inca culture and provide another identification of royalty. The simple, but continuous, configuration of geometric lines and shapes all work together to create an image that symbolizes the culture of the Andeans, whether it be depictions of the environment, clothing, or the human body. Pottery fashioned by lower-class potters would not be as detailed, and much for suited for functionality rather than décor, such as cooking and storage. Because of the sheer amount of people that lived in the Inca Empire and how widespread they were, numerous ceramics have been recovered from archaeological sites, contributing to the evidence that differentiates patterns from the common folk and nobility (Rowe, 143).

          The Aztecs had a different view on pottery, depending on the wealth of each family. In a similar way to the Incas, every household could not function without pots and jars to cook and store food in and hold water for drinking, cleaning, cooking, and washing. The most common material used for ceramics is called Plain Ware (Rodríguez-Alegría & Stoner, 199), which consists of clay and minerals that would potentially fire into yellows, oranges, and browns. Pottery for the working class focused on practicality and were specifically designed for particular foods. Figure 3 (Rodríguez-Alegría & Stoner, 199) displays pieces of flat comals designed for preparing tortillas, maize, and vegetables, often paired with jars to cook stews and brew alcoholic drinks, such as pulque. Excavations in Tula, Mexico uncovered sites dedicated to pottery, finding “kilns, open firing places, tools, molds, and production waste” (Sánchez, 49) that insinuate the popularity and importance of the ceramics industry throughout the Aztec Empire.

          The Valley of Mexico contained apt materials for creating durable ceramics, in that clay was bountiful and comprised of a suitable composition that could withstand daily use and widespread trade. The overall process includes preparation of the material, formation into the desired shape, firing, and final designs, if the customer requests to do so (Sánchez, 51-79). Much like the method of the Incas, the clay must be mixed with minerals of a sort, usually sand or basalt, to provide stability for molding, and incorporate the correct measurements that are associated with jars of explicit function (53-54). Geological and archaeological evidence prevents one type of clay mixture from being positively correlated with a city, as various forms of clay and accompanying deposits were present all throughout the valley. Once the consistency of the clay is satisfactory, the potter will then go on to shape the pottery using a potter’s wheel, molds, or their own hands. The techniques used to create the shape of a container are noticeable even when the product is finished, based on markings on the surface. Sánchez provides an example using the indentations a person’s hands leave on the pot when a wheel is used (55), although purposeful grooves and paint can conceal imperfections such as this. Later vessels of Aztec ceramics before Spanish colonialism formed out of horizontal molds that modeled the long necks of jars or platforms on chalices, which were then attached onto the body that was made separately from other horizontal molds (55-56). Bowls were much less complex, in that one mold was necessary for forming the walls of the vessel, extra details and attachments concerned only the wealthier receivers of the ceramics. For this, more molds were used to acquire the exact number of appendages that were suited. After the piece is completely in shape, the potter would alter the surface of the clay to smooth visible imperfections and gloss the material using liquids, tools, and skill (57-58), before the item would be fired.

          Elaborately designed ceramics were reserved for the upper class and ritual ceremonies (Sánchez, 48-49), as recovered from the late pre-colonial period in the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley. The diversity that existed within the empire gave way for multiple shapes and designs to arise, as well as provide additional evidence of the trade patterns and routes (Sánchez, 51). It is no surprise that the pot used to fix a meal would appear drastically underwhelming when compared to the large serving bowl that were seen by nobles and royalty (53). The most common and feasibly the easiest designs were matte black paint decorating the orange surfaces of a fired vessel, named today Black-on-Orange (59). The opposite of this technique emerged later, called Red Ware (59). This consisted of orange surfaces must better burnished than Black-on-Orange vessels, adorned with red paint that had a glossy finish. Very occasionally, white paint would be added to decorate the figure, creating some pottery that incorporates pictures of red, black, and white designs. Still, ceramics continued to be refined. Perhaps the most luxurious ceramics are those of Cholula, named the Chalco Polychromes by archaeologists for the white film that topped the well-made orange surface of the vessels in this period (61). The last five centuries of the Aztec Empire before the Spanish Conquest saw to the perfection of this ceramic-making, the body becoming thinner and smoother and detailing becoming intricate and elaborate. Even Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a conquistador, remarked on how Montezuma, one of the last leaders of the Aztecs, would only eat meals from the finest dishware in his account of the indigenous culture.

          With the arrival of the year 1519 came the arrival of Hernan Cortés and his Spanish conquistadors to Tabasco, Mexico, who are credited with toppling the Aztec Empire. A battle ensued shortly after the first encounter between the indigenous people and the Spaniards, in which the Aztecs were no match for European weapons and Spanish horses (DeAngelis). To placate Cortés, the natives gifted twenty slave women to him, including Malinche, famed for her knowledge of Yucatec, Nahuatl, and later, Spanish, as well as her translating abilities under the control of Cortés (Díaz, 126). “This was the great beginning of our conquests and thus, thanks me to God, things prospered with us. I have made a point of explaining this matter, because without the help of Doña Marina we could not have understood the language of New Spain and Mexico” (Díaz, 135). Malinche, who was christened the name Marina after Cortés demanded the women be baptized, was present at every meeting to translate between the Spaniards and Aztecs. With her help, Cortés was able to capture and kill Montezuma, emperor of the Aztecs, and overthrow the following rebellions to complete the conquest of Mexico.

          There was no interference by the Spanish to demolish indigenous art and pottery made by the Aztecs, even if there were extreme efforts to replace native culture with that of Spain’s and Catholicism (Sánchez, 91). There were, however, unavoidable Spanish influences that were intertwined throughout the following generations and applied into the art of ceramic-making. For one, the pottery and dishware connected to rituals and decorated in the likeness of the Aztec gods ceased to be made, although some of the rituals themselves made their way into Latin Catholicism (Sánchez, 93). Chalco Polychrome vessels were still crafted, this time impacted by European style, and depictions of pagan illustrations and pictorial writings vanished. Earthenware soon adopted the Spanish practice of lead glazing, a process that coats the clay to prevent damage and seal the surface of the pot, making it easy to cook on and clean (Rodríguez-Alegría & Stoner, 199-200). Figures 2 and 4 demonstrate the shine that lead glazing provides, compared to the bare material of the comal fragments in Figure 3.

          Fewer than 15 years after Cortés landed in the Americas, Francisco Pizarro followed suit in 1532, this time with his sights set on Peru and the indigenous people there (Rowe, 198). Motivated by the easy disposition and proceedings of Cortes, Pizarro launched a bloody attack that resulted in the capture of Inca chief Atahualpa (DeAngelis). “Nothing discouraged them, nothing repelled them, nothing exhausted them. Neither hunger, nor danger, nor wounds, nor sickness, nor bad days and even worse nights, could keep them from pushing constantly forward, over land and sea, in search of the un-heard-of feats that, for all time, have left a halo of glory around their names” (Garcilaso, 364). The Spaniards looted Inca temples, cities, and homes, collecting all gold and silver they saw, allowing them to document Inca craftsmanship for reports and historical accounts. During these raids, thousands of natives were abused and murdered as punishment for resisting the foreign violence (DeAngelis). This resulted in the Incas burying their items of value to save them from the hands of the conquistadors, allowing archaeologists to uncover artifacts, specifically ceramics, centuries later.

          Some of the main evolutions of Inca pottery due to Spanish colonialism are the replacement of copper and bronze tools with that of Spanish iron ones (Rowe, 247) and other technologies that improved the lifespan of pottery and began the process of modernizing the Americas. Lead glazing was also introduced to the Incas, along with the use of materials such as stone, porcelain, and glaze (Chatfield, 137). Altering the traditional way of cooking and serving food was yet another cultural shift from the previously indigenous customs to the property of the Spanish. Shipments of glazed Spanish pottery, called majolica, arrived in the Americas from Spain several years after the Inca conquest, eventually making their way to Lima and being distributed throughout the remains of the collapsed Inca Empire (Chatfield, 120-123). For the most part, the conquistadors cooked and dined with the same pottery the Incas did, although they made sure the glazed pottery of the Spaniards separated them from the inferior natives, who were left to cook in Spanish households with unglazed cooking utensils (125). This is another example of the native identity being erased by European colonizers through ceramics.

          There were countless consequences of the Spanish Conquest, many of which were reflected upon ceramics and the manufacture process of the Incas and Aztecs. Studying how clay and other desired elements are collected, as well as how a piece was molded, fired, and decorated, are all acknowledgements to the pre- and post-colonial techniques that occupied the time of ancient natives. The material culture of these two great empires provides insight to the daily lives of the working class and nobility that made up the pillars of society, especially when connecting artifacts to other aspects of culture. Colonialism did not obliterate the native peoples of the Americas, leaving no trace of the culture that once dominated the land; instead, it forced the traditions and practices that defined the Incas and Aztecs to adapt in order to survive. The processes of creating beautiful art in the form of pottery were complex and significant long before the Spanish came and forever left their brutal mark on ancient civilizations.